SEX TOURISM IN KENYA- (UTALII WA LUNGULA)

GENDER AND THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SEX
TOURISM IN KENYA’S COASTAL RESORTS1
BY
ROSE KISIA OMONDI
Lecturer, Department of Marketing and Logistics,
School of Business and Management,
Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
1 A paper first presented at the International Symposium/Doctorial Course on Feminist Perspective on
Global Economic and Political Systems and Women’s struggle for Global Justice at Sommoroya Hotel,
Tromso, Norway, September 24 –26, 2003.
Introduction
“Sex tourism requires Third World women to be economically desperate
enough to enter into prostitution; having done so it is made difficult to
leave. The other side of the equation requires men from affluent societies
to imagine certain women, usually women of colour, to be more available
and submissive than women in their own countries. Finally, the industry
depends on an alliance between local governments in search of foreign
currency and local foreign business willing to invest in sexualised travel”
(Enloe, 2000:36)
Otherwise known as tourism prostitution, sex tourism may be defined as tourism
for which the main motivation or at least part of the aim of the trip is to
consummate or engage in commercial sexual relations (Graburn 1983; Hall
1991; Ryan and Hall 2001; Truong 1990). Studies indicate that in recent years,
the number of men (and women) travelling to foreign destinations usually in the
Third World seeking sex tourism has increased tremendously (Herold et al. 2001;
Ryan and Hall 2001). In the past, notorious destinations for sex tourism have
been mainly the Southeast Asian countries such as Bangkok (‘the red light
capital of the world’), Thailand (sometimes called ‘Thighland’), the Philippines,
Indonesia, South Korea and Sri Lanka (Enloe 2002; Hall 2001; Lim 1998;
Robinson and Bishop 1998).
Today, sex tourism has spread to other regions of the world including Goa (a
coastal state of India), Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Brazil, Costa Rica,
Eastern Europe and a number of African countries such as Kenya, Tunisia,
South Africa and The Gambia (Ryan and Hall 2001, Enloe 2002; Chissim 1996;).
Sex tourism is thus steadily increasing as the tourism industry expands.
However, little information is available on its nature, magnitude and the factors
promoting it in Kenya and in Africa in general.
This paper discusses gender and the political economy of sex tourism on the
Kenyan coast, its health and socio-economic impacts and the government policy
on sex work.
International Tourism and Sex Tourism In Kenya
Globally, international tourist arrivals have been increasing steadily from 69
million people in 1960 to 160 million in 1970, 458 million in 1990, and 625 million
The views expressed in this paper are solely those of the
author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ARSRC
or any organisation providing support
in 1998 (WTO, 1999) and this increase has included the increase in sex tourism
through mass tourism, as many tourists visit new destinations (Cater 1989;
Harrison 1992). In Kenya, international tourism has grown tremendously and is
currently one of Kenya's leading and most well established industries. Most tourists
travelling to Kenya are mass tourists coming to seek the five “S”s. Hence, the
expansion of mass tourism in Kenya is also directly associated with the increase
in sex tourism in the country. This is evidenced by the inclusion of Kenya among
the world’s leading sex tourism destinations (Vatican 2003; Boston Globe 1995;
East African Standard 1995; Migot-Adhola et al. 1982; Sindiga 1999; and
Chessim 1996).
Why Tourists Visit Kenya
A number of reasons have been documented in the official statistics as the
reasons why tourists visit the country. First is Kenya’s natural beauty and its
landscape, which makes it one of the most beautiful and interesting places in the
world. Second is the country’s wildlife Safari. Kenya has immense biodiversity in
flora and fauna, which makes it an ideal spot for tourism. Within an area of
582,6646 square kilometres of which 8% is protected and designated as national
parks and reserves, Kenya has 309 known mammal species and 1067 bird
species (Weaver, 1998). The first protected area, the Nairobi National Park, was
established in 1946 and today, Kenya has 59 National parks and reserves each
of which differs in its offering of diversity and attractions. Apart from its natural
beauty and wildlife safari, white sand beaches, good climate and cultural activities
are the other reasons why tourists visit Kenya.
Although not officially stated, a good percentage of foreign tourists who visit Kenya
often indulge in sex tourism or at least as part of the activities during their trip
(Chissam 1996; Sindiga 1999). The majority of the tourists visiting Kenya are
mainly from Germany, the UK, Switzerland, Italy and France. Others are from North
America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and European countries such as Spain,
Sweden and also from the Scandinavian countries. Many of these countries have
been generating sex tourists to some of the world’s renowned sex tourism
destinations such as Thailand (Ryan and Hall 2001). Hence, we can conclude that
they are likely to engage in the same activity while in Kenya.
As common with most developing countries, Kenya is primarily an agricultural
country where agriculture contributes 24.0% of GDP. Overall, Kenya’s economic
performance has been declining. The country’s per capita is about US$ 260 and
more than 50% of the Kenyan population currently lives below the poverty line;
the worst hit are women (CBS 2001).
The Economics of Tourism and the Sex Industry
At independence in 1963, Kenya relied on cash crop exports, and so the
government quickly set about trying to diversify the economy by implementing an
‘open door’ economic policy aimed at attracting foreign investment. However,
recognition of the limitations of the agricultural and manufacturing sectors,
coupled with the appreciation of employment potential meant that the Kenyan
government had to turn to tourism as a central industry. The numbers of tourists
and earnings from tourism have been increasing steadily since independence;
although some fluctuations (including some downtrends) have also been
recorded.
Between 1965 and 1972, the number of people visiting Kenya rose by 132%,
(Chissim1996) which lead to further investment in the industry, such that the
sector is creating employment more rapidly than any other.
Since 1987, tourism has been Kenya’s leading foreign exchange earner, (CBS
2001) surpassing the traditional export crops of coffee and tea (Gakahu1992;
Weaver 1998 and CBS 2001). The industry employs about 1.3 million Kenyans,
approximately 8% of wage earning labour force (Weaver, 1998 and CBS 1999).
In addition, Tourism is also linked to many domestic industries and is a
potentially useful tool for generating development in neglected areas. The
industry also contributes substantially to government revenues through taxes,
import duties, licenses and fees. Tourism is therefore officially promoted in Kenya
as the main foreign exchange earner, source of employment and general
development. Its significance on the Kenyan economy has a lot of bearing on
tourism policies; including those related to sex tourism.
Gender and The Political Economy of Sex Tourism In Kenya
This section presents an overview of the gender and political economy of sex
tourism in Kenya. It is argued that sex tourism represents an unjust social order
and an institution that economically exploits women (Awanohara 1975; Cohen
1988; Montgomery 2001). Sex tourism should be viewed within the context of
structural inequality and gender imbalance that is often unfair to women and
constructs women, especially African women, as exploitable and submissive
(Ennew 1986; Young 1973; Sindiga 1999).
This inequality is reinforced through many promotional brochures that associate
men with action, power, and ownership, while women are represented as
passive, available and as objects to be owned. Sexual and exotic images of
women in the tourism industry are used to market destinations and these often
reinforce patriarchal powers. Patriarchy and sexuality of women operate on the
principle that the male shall dominate the female and that the older male shall
dominate the younger male. Man therefore controls female sexuality and the
social institutions through which this control is exercised, the family. So through
prostitution female sexual desirability is being promoted but at the same time it is
also being stigmatised as sexual deviance (Ryan and Hall 2001; and Troung
1990).
Like all transactions, sex tourism is both an economic and political phenomenon
because it must have a market and the transactions must be considered socially
and politically legitimate (Fish 1984; Richter 1995). Sex tourism in Kenya like in
other parts of the world is not promiscuity and/or a crime but a response to the
political economy and women’s sexuality. Prostitutes (women) are sexual victims
while the men are empowered sexual actors because males often use their
economic power to perpetuate their gender roles (maleness) and to reinforce
power relations of male dominance and female subordination. The prostitutes are
often poor victims of circumstances acting to the dictates of the rich, powerful
male tourists exploiters and deviants (Collins 2000; Ryan and Hall 2001; Troung
1990). These relationships lead to the to objectification and commodification of
women’s bodies. It is however important to note that even though the general
feeling is that women are exploited, there are some sex workers who have a
sense of power over males (Ryan and Hall 2001).
Market for Female Tourists
Sex tourism is now taking different forms. First is the reality that there is a sex
tourism market for female tourists. Female tourists are also coming to Kenya to
meet with the local beach boys and promoting male prostitution. In this case,
European women imagine black men (or men of colour) to be stronger and active
in bed compared to the men back in their home countries.
Studies of relationships between female tourists and local males have been
conducted in Jamaica and other parts of the world (Chissim 1996; Ryan and Hall
2001). One such a study was by Pruitt and LaFont (1995) in which they studied
female tourists in Jamaica. In their study, they coined the term, ‘romance
tourism’, which they used instead of sex tourism. Based on their observations, it
appeared that both the female tourists and the local males saw their relationship
more in terms of romance and courtship rather than an exchange of sex for
money. The actors were seen as being emotionally involved with each other and
desirous of long-term relationships.
Also, Third World women are now migrating to foreign countries as entertainers
and brides for these foreign men. This is the latest step in making world travel
different. Men in Scandinavia, Germany, Australia, Britain, the U.S.A. and Japan
now want to have access to Third World women not just in the Third world
tourism centres, but they want to enjoy their services at home.
Child prostitution is also emerging in Kenya involving young boys and girls. This
was previously not very common in Kenya but with HIV/AIDS, many orphaned
children are now turning to prostitution.
The Different Forms of Sex Tourism
The sex tourism industry takes different forms. Sometimes it involves the
production of videos featuring nude-dancing in which no direct physical contact
occurs; the tourists engage in voyeurism. There are also the ‘casual prostitutes’
or freelancers who move in and out of prostitution depending on their financial
needs. In this situation sex tourism may be regarded as incomplete
commercialised and the relationship between sex worker and client may be
ridden with ambiguities (Cohen 1982; Ryan and Hall 2001), particularly if the
relationship shifts from an economic to a social base.
There is also the more formalized form of prostitution where the workers operate
through intermediaries. Since sex tourism is generally illegal, prostitutes are often
forced to use entertainment establishments such as clubs, bars or other retail
outlets in order to operate. Yet, another form of sex tourism is that of bonded
prostitutes. This type of prostitution is a form of slavery because it is enforced by
other people such as family members or through abductions and kidnapping.
Sex Tourism Market on the Kenya Coast
The Kenya Coast along the Indian Ocean is notorious for sex tourism. It caters
for about 66% of Kenya tourism activities and although no precise figures are
available, sex tourism is one of the main activities at the coast (Sindiga 1999,
Migot-Adhola et al 1982; Bechmann 1985,). The Kenyan coast as a tourist
destination came into play in the early 1920s attracting mainly the white settlers and
colonial government officials who sought holiday excitement there.
Major tourist attractions at the coast include the wildlife, white sandy beaches,
sun, sea, sex, scenic features, diverse cultures, hospitable people, historical
sites, national museums, national parks and reserves near the coast and tourism
facilities of international standard such as hotels and the airport.
The high demand for the coast as a tourist site is evident in the higher numbers
of hotel spaces occupied at the coast compared to other regions in the country.
(Table.1) There are 412 registered hotels at the coast, majority of which are
beach hotels developed in the last 25 years. Much of the tourism activities at the
coast are centred on the major beach towns of Mombasa, Malindi, Lamu, Kilifi
and Watamu (Map.1). It is at these hotels that visitors indulge in their main
activities of sun bathing, swimming, organized excursions into the game reserves
and visits to museums and the surrounding villages.
The expansion of tourism at the coast has also been encouraged by the
improvement of Mombasa airport to an international standard; the airport is
currently receiving direct charter flights from Europe. The flights are a cheaper
way to make the long-haul trips to Kenya. With the introduction of these kinds of
flights, mass tourists from Germany, Switzerland, Italy and other parts of Europe
have increasingly been able to land directly in Mombasa.
These activities have in turn, had profound socio-economic impact; including the
emergence of sex tourism. The presence of Americans, Britons, Germans and
others in Mombasa and other coastal areas in search of rest and recreation has
also been a factor attracting Kenyan girls to become involved in sex work
(Sindiga 1999 and Chissim 1996).
In addition, women of multi-racial and ethnic communities often perceived as
more submissive by foreign sex tourists, are also found in these costal areas
In summary, the main features that have made the Kenyan Coast a popular sex
tourism destination include (1) the high concentration of tourist facilities and the
activities that occur at the coast (2) tourist attractions such as sand, sun, sea
and sex (3) foreign military bases at the coast (4) Mombasa International Airport
(5) the presence of women who are perceived to be more submissive (6) and
the presence of a cruise-ship landing base. As a result of these factors, sex
tourism facilities such as brothels and private cottages have mushroomed on the
coast, owned largely by foreigners (Jommo 1987; Sindiga 1999; Migot-Adhola et
al. 1982).
MAP.1: THE KENYAN COAST: SUN, SEA, SAND AND SEX.
INDIAN OCEAN
L a m u
ETHIOPIA
SOMALIA
TANZANIA
UGANDA
L. Turkana
SUDAN
L. Victoria
K E N Y A
E
L A M U
C o a s t l i n e
N
I N D I A N O C E A N
M a l i n d i
A F R I C A
Kilometers
W
Kilifi
M o m b a s a
K W A L E
K I L I F I
Kwale
International Boundary
10
Countries Boundaries
River
Tarmac Road
Railway Line
Murram Road
0 5
Table1: Hotel Bed-Nights Occupied By Zone, 1997-2001
ZONE 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Coastal-Beach….
- Other….
Coast
Hinterland..
Nairobi-High
Class
- Other...
Central………
Maasailand…..
Nyanza Basin…
Western……
Northern…
3074.4
71.5
59.0
801.5
311.8
218.1
215.0
88.2
64.3
6.5
1505.3
109.1
43.9
655.6
178.0
92.9
85.2
110.8
27.3
4.9
1625.2
73.9
48.7
685.5
173.2
77.5
84.3
110.1
69.2
3.4
2065.2
85.8
76.3
836.1
167.2
145.7
141.5
87.3
72.4
10.3
1872.5
137.9
56.5
681.3
138.2
83.1
138.3
107.1
98.8
41.2
TOTALOCCUPIED
4910.3 2813.0 2951.0 3687.8 3354.9
TOTALAVAILABLE
9516.6 7975.7 8711.4 9382.3 8327.8
Source CBS 2002
Motivation Factors: Why Do Tourists Look for Sex?
There are many factors that appear to motivate and promote sex tourism in the
Third World countries including Kenya. When tourists go to a destination, there is
the assurance of anonymity, which releases them from the usual restraints,
which determine their behaviours in their home countries. A person’s behaviour
is often different when they are away from home. Tourism allows people “to lose
their identity” and gives them the freedom to escape realities and to live their
fantasies. Most tourists will behave differently when on holiday. They will spend
more money, relax more, drink more, eat more and they will allow themselves
pleasures that they would not at home. Men who would never visit brothels in
their home countries for example, will end up doing so in a foreign country where
there is a negligible chance of detection and (or) penalty.
Tourists also seek commercial sex in a place like Kenya because sexual services
in Kenya are cheap compared to what the tourists may have to pay in their home
countries. Tourists travelling to Kenya are able to enjoy a lifestyle that they could
never have at home. Perhaps, some of the tourists may hold menial jobs in their
industrialized home countries but because of the disparity in salaries and high
exchange rates; they may appear comparatively rich when they are in a poorer
country like Kenya. They would therefore tend to spend their money in sexual
activities that they associate with the rich and the famous in their home countries.
Chissim has illustrated this from an interview with a German tourist in Kenya
(Chissim 1996:18)
“…Marco said he was in Kenya for a month but within 4 days, he boasted of
already fucking 5 girls. He said he fucked one girl on the beach but pretended
that he had no money, so he got that one for free. Another girl he fucked on the
beach for 100/- (less than $2) and told her that he did not have any more money
than that. The others he had to pay 200/- (about $3.50) …“
The other reason, which can explain sexual exploitation of women in the Third
World countries including Kenya, is the desire on the part of tourists to try
something “nouveau” with a different race. Some tourists who visit Kenya may
have travelled to other destinations like Thailand renowned for their sex tourism
industry and since Kenya is very different from these other locations it may
represent another race to be sampled.
For some of these tourists, Kenya represents Africa where life is perceived as
raw and wild and a place where people are uncontrolled, liberal, and
polygamous. These reasons can partly explain why some European women visit
Kenya to look for sex. Actually it is estimated that 5% of all European women
who visit Kenya go in search of sex with a higher ratio from Germany and
Switzerland (New York Times Feb.14, 2002).
Some African ethnic cultures also place a high value on virginity. This notion,
thus, increases the desire of the tourist to have sex with younger girls; in the
anticipation of having sex with a virgin. There is also the added belief that the
younger girls are likely to be free from HIV/AIDS.
Some tourists engage in sex tourism because they may be fleeing from unhappy
relationships at home and, perhaps, from women who may tend to question
male domination. One cannot rule out the fact that some men are unable to
accept the decline in the privileges that patriarchal societies traditionally
bestowed on men, which is becoming the reality in many parts of the world.
Power of Advertising
Tourists also visit Third World countries because of the many promotional
messages and advertising that feature romantic images of women’s bodies
around swimming pools or other bodies of water. Tourism brochures are
swamped with images of African women at the tourist sites who are portrayed as
sensual and available. Such images may act to reinforce the tourists’ feeling of
having complete control over a sex worker’s body just because he has paid some
money.
Sex tourism also thrives along the Kenyan coast simply because the
infrastructure to facilitate this is in place. The Kenyan coast has a number of
hotels, nightclubs, bars, and beaches where prostitutes’ and clients’ relationships
can be formed and sexual relations consummated. This has also been made
easy by the laxity on the part of the police officers who easily succumb to bribes
and are inclined to turn a blind eye on such activities.
There also exists along the Kenyan coast, a Mafia-style drugs and sex industry.
These are people with a lot of money capable of bribing their way out of trouble.
They also have the capacity to organise services for clients outside the country
(Sindiga 1999; Chessim 1996 Migot-Adhola et al 1982).
“Most fundamentally, however, the motivations for sex tourism are an outcome of
a desire on the part of the tourist for self gratifying erotic power through the
control of another’s body” (Ryan& Kinder 1996:516)
Male supremacy is perceived as a natural kind of authority in many cultures and
world religions. Cultural values that define traditional male sex roles are power,
dominance, strength, virility and superiority and those that define female roles
are submissiveness, passivity, weakness and inferiority. In many legal systems,
and in social and religious thinking, women are perceived as the property of
men and sex as the exchange of goods, which further entrenches male
supremacy. The notion of male supremacy also teaches boys and men that
females are worthless and less deserving and may be treated poorly or less than
males.
Supply Factors – Why Do Sex Workers Get involved?
“Often times I don’t feel anything during sexual encounters. There are times
when I am hurt. If I keep doing it, it is because I need money for my self and my
children. I have learned to do motions mechanically in order to satisfy my
customers. If you do it very well they will come back- and that means money”
(Lin Lean Lim 2000:74)
This Filipino woman quoted by Lin Lean Lim has expressed the reason why
many Third World women are in the sex tourism business and their feelings
about sex work. For many, the number one reason is poverty. Some Kenyan
women and women in other Third World countries are ‘economically desperate’.
Prostitution is therefore considered the only available option for them to ensure
their survival and that of their families. They migrate to the coast with hope of
finding a white tourist who can pay more or who might marry them and take them
to the West; or at least who might become their boyfriend.
Some of the girls who are involved in prostitution apparently come from broken
homes, or are street children, or orphans. The increasing poverty and the
profitability of prostitution makes the traditional societal ethics and the codes of
sexual conduct almost irrelevant for many people; including the parents of the
prostitutes.
One would then wonder why women are generally poorer compared to men in
many African countries including Kenya. The following are some of the major
reasons.
Women have limited access to productive resources such as land, capital, farm
equipments and agricultural inputs. Land has historically remained outside the
control of women. Inheritance practices in most African communities favour the
male gender who can acquire land mostly through inheritance and to a lesser
extent through purchase. A woman’s right to land is usually limited to user rights
only. This implies that males can easily have access to other productive
resources because they can use land as a security to borrow money if needed to
purchase other productive resources. This option is not usually available for
women
Women relatively enjoy lower levels of education and have limited training
opportunities compared to their male counterparts. This again is because parents
give priority (although, this is slowly changing) to boys’ education particularly if
the resources are inadequate. Other factors that affect the education of females
include unwanted pregnancies and the fact that they may be forced into early
marriages by their parents for economic gains.
Many Kenya women are also overburdened by high fertility rates and lack of
family planning services. This situation is is exacerbated by poor maternal health
and nutritional status. Thus, women have family care burdens including caring for
children, which makes it very difficult for them to engage in any meaningful
economic activity. Women also have a poor perception of themselves and their
abilities. Added to this is the lack of knowledge about both their rights and the
resources that are potentially available to them. The situation is further
compounded by the prevailing attitudes of the society to women’s abilities and
socio-economic roles.
The other factor contributing to women’s poverty is the ‘fallen woman’ concept;
that is, any woman who has suffered from seduction, rape, been jilted or left a
male partner, is often cut-off from other employment or even marriage because
of their sex history. This leaves such women with limited choices and as such
may opt for prostitution in the search for viable livelihoods.
Women are also discriminated against in most areas of formal employment and
are often left with the worst paid jobs or no jobs at all. Lure of easy and plentiful
money coupled with new social norms (the relative anonymity and freedom from
familiar and village surveillance in the tourism locations) makes prostitution an
alternative source of employment for many young women.
HIV/AIDS
The HIV/AIDS scourge is a big problem in many developing countries. In Kenya it
is estimated that 500 people die of AIDS or related illnesses every day, leaving
many orphans. In the majority of cases, these young children become the heads
of households and must therefore find ways and means of taking care of their
siblings. For the girls, the easy alternative is to turn to sex work in order to get
some income.
Many Third World countries are also experiencing a crisis within the agriculture
sector which forces rural folks, including young women, to move to urban centres
in search of employment. Not everybody can get jobs in these urban centres; but
once you are there, you must meet your basic living expenses. For many women,
sex work is the answer.
Spread of new forms of consumerism, growing materialism and the increasing
cost of living a more conspicuous life-style are a motivation for some young
female migrants to enter prostitution. In addition, the benefits of remittances from
sex workers is an incentive for other family and community members to get
involved or to encourage girls to go into sex work.
Impact of Sex Tourism In Kenya – Benefits or Blight?
Sex tourism can be seen as both a risk and an opportunity to acquire resources.
Because of the risks involved, many women prefer to attach themselves to pimps
or other ‘traders’ for safety and security reasons and in the end get less income.
Alternatively, they may decide to go it alone and get high incomes but with this
also comes a great risk. Most women in sex work face the risk of material loss
because they may not be paid by their clients after offering sexual services (ref.
The Marco case). Women are generally helpless against such exploitation and
take them as part of their business.
The other material risks is the money that they must give to the police in
exchange for liberty to operate and especially since the work is mostly done at
night. The women also risk losing their money to theft.
Women can sometimes face attacks by dissatisfied customers. They may face
physical attacks in the form of cruelty, violence and rape and in extreme cases
even pay with their life, as did one woman in 1980.
“Monica Njeri was a 32-year-old mother of two and a prostitute in Mombassa with
a bias towards male clients. She was brutally murdered by Frank Sundstrom a19
year old USA navy service man who wanted the kind of sex that Monica could
not provide. When he was not satisfied with merely sleeping, he woke up and
tried to steal back the money he had given to Monica plus her own money but
she woke up and caught him in the act. In the ensuing struggle, he broke a beer
bottle to make a weapon and repeatedly stabbed her until she died.” (Migot-
Adhola 1982:74)
Although, Sundstrom admitted the offence, his only sentence was to sign a bond
of 500/- (equivalent to US$46 at that time) to be of good conduct.
Health Problems
Women in prostitution also face health problems. They are exposed to sexually
transmitted infections including HIV/AIDS. It is worth noting that as much as the
women would like to use preventive measures such as condoms, not may
tourists will accept this. The reasons that have been given by some tourists is
that it interrupts the flow of sex and that carrying it may imply that one is
promiscuous (Clift & Grabowski 1997). The other health danger with sex work is
the susceptibility to anal or cervical cancers. Additionally, since many women are
forced into sex work, some may only be able to work under the influence of drugs
and/or alcohol. These can in turn lead to drug and alcohol addiction as well as
mental depression.
Due to its nature, sex tourism has been perceived largely as having a negative
impact on society. However, there is another side to it. Sex tourism can generate
income. Some women that have risked prostitution have been able to build better
houses and have invested in urban plots and houses. This is largely because
earnings from prostitution are often more than from other alternative employment
opportunities open to women with low levels of education. Although some girls
state that they would like to move from prostitution to other jobs, they are
conscious of the income that they are likely to lose.
Sex workers contribute to the national economy by boosting the profits of many
transnational hotels and airlines, small street vendors who sell ornaments, hotel
staff, taxi drivers, brothel owners, and many other intermediaries. The police, the
state, as well as local and international enterprises are all aware that sex has a
market value even though they proclaim that prostitution is immoral (Ryan and
Hall 2001).
Sex tourism can also contribute to cultural exchange. Many sex workers are
forced to learn foreign languages; for without such skills they cannot perform
their work well. There are also occasions when these temporary relationships
have led to more permanent unions such as marriage, which in turn have
removed the girls from everyday prostitution. The other positive impact is that
health workers are encouraged to pay more attention to their health due to the
nature of their work. These girls must go for check ups regularly and should any
problem be detected it can be treated in time.
Policy Issues: Precisely, what is the Kenyan Government’s Position?
“This new form of slavery is as a result of apathetic policy, the economic greed of
local privileged classes, the poverty of certain countries and the struggle for
survival of some sectors of the population” (The Vatican’s Permanent Observer
at the World Tourism Organization April 2003).
The section discusses policy issues relating to the sex tourism market in the
country, and in particular, explains various attempts by the Kenyan government
to control what is called “sex safari”.
The legal viewpoint on prostitution has been expressed at various levels. At the
international level, various policies have been formulated and adopted, for
example, the United Nations Convention for the Suppression of trafficking in
Persons and the Exploitation of the Prostitutes by Others in 1949. Subsequently,
UN member states, Kenya inclusive, are expected to adopt domestic legal
measures to criminalize prostitution and to curb syndicates. However, evidence
shows that such measures have brought about few changes in so far as
suppressing the practice of prostitution and the trafficking of women and children
are concerned.
This is as a result of the poverty levels in certain nations as expressed by the
Vatican representative to WTO. In my view, governments of poorer countries
such as Kenya cannot be expected to regulate the sex industry merely for moral
reasons especially if the industry is bringing in the much-needed foreign
exchange. What these countries can do at best is to enact laws so as to appear
concerned but would do very little if anything to enforce such regulations.
The law that currently exists in Kenya with regards to prostitution is found in CAP
63. S.153–S.156 Laws of Kenya. The law specifically states:
S.153 (1) “every male person who -
(a) Knowingly lives wholly or in part on the earnings of prostitution; or (b) In any
public place persistently solicits or importunes for immoral purposes, is guilty of a
misdemeanour”
S.153 (2) prohibits any man from living with a prostitute or to control or help a
woman into prostitution with the aim of living on such earnings.
S.154 “Every woman who knowingly lives wholly or in part on the earnings of
prostitution or who is proved to have, for the purposes of gain exercised control,
direction or influence over movements of a prostitute in such a manner as to
show that she is aiding, abetting or controlling her prostitution with any person or
generally, is guilty of a misdemeanour”
S.156 prohibits any person from owning, managing or being the leaser of any
premises to be used as a brothel
This law therefore does not make prostitution illegal as such; but only living on
the earnings from prostitution is illegal. By implication therefore only loitering,
pimping and ownership, management or occupancy of a brothel is illegal. It is
important to note however that only women sex workers have occasionally
suffered from this law and not the men (prostitutes) or owners of brothels who in
most cases are influential people and can buy their way out of trouble.
Sex tourism in Kenya has also been given semi-official recognition. For example,
the City Council of Mombasa issues cards to bar girls to work in these places but
the media and the government alike have neglected to bring this issue to light
despite the knowledge of the existence of this practice (Migot-Adhola et al. 1982
and Sindiga 1999).
Discussions
Sex tourism has developed and is increasingly becoming a complex global
phenomenon. One can only wonder why despite the health risks and other
problems that are associated with this trade, that tourists and the sex workers
like are still engaging in sex tourism.
The major part of this discussion will consider whether sex work should be
legalized or criminalized in Kenya and the various programmes that can help to
rehabilitate sex workers. Criminalisation of prostitution would be highly unfair
since in most cases prostitutes are themselves victims of highly organized
institutional structures and arrangements.
Criminalisation may punish the prostitutes, but not necessarily stop them from
such work, especially if there are no viable alternatives. Such a ban would only
serve to drive the sector underground. In which case, those in need of protection
would become more marginalized. Should sex work be declared illegal,
prostitutes may be discouraged from openly seeking safer sex education and
health services, thereby merely exacerbating the health threats both to
themselves and the larger population.
Criminalisation also has been very selective because the law and its enforcement
mainly affects women, while clients, pimps and brothel owners have remained
relatively untouched (Truong 1983; Sindiga 1999). This could be seen in The
Contagious Diseases Act in Britain (1864) that was established as a state
policing system for compulsory periodical genital examination of women
suspected to be prostitutes. Butler, a feminist who led the fight against this Act
claimed that it subjected women to men’s control. She documents a bitter
complaint by one of the women who was picked up by the police (Enloe
2002:57)
“… it is men, men, only men, from the first to the last that we have to do with! To
please a man, I did wrong at first, then I was flung about from man to man. Men
police lay hands on us. By men we are examined, handled, doctored…In the
hospital, it is a man again who makes prayers and reads the Bible for us. We are
had up before magistrates who are men, and we never get out of the hands of
men till we die!” And as she spoke I thought, “ And it was a parliament of men
only who made the law which treats you as an outlaw. Men alone met in
committee over it. Men alone are the executives. When men, of all ranks, thus
band themselves together for an end deeply concerning women, and place
themselves like a thick impenetrable wall between women and women…it is time
that women should arise and demand their most sacred rights in regard to their
sisters.”
What existed in Britain in the 1860’s is not any different from what we have in
Kenya today. For example out of 222 members of parliament, only 17 are women
and this is virtually the same in the other professions mentioned above:
magistrates, police, doctors, religious leaders etc men are the majority and can
be estimated to be somewhere between 70-100%. Criminalizing sex work will
only hurt women.
The best alternative would probably be to allow adult women to engage in sex
work if they so wish. However, since sex tourism is an important source of
commercial sexual exploitation of children it is necessary to introduce provisions
for extraterritorial application of laws, so that perpetrators from other countries
can be brought to justice for criminal acts committed in other countries. This
should also apply to international trafficking of women and children since
trafficking is done against the victims’ will. Immigration laws should also be
reviewed to take these problems into account.
Legalizing sex work would be more beneficial to women as they will be able to
have better working conditions and they would also earn more as they will not
need the services of middlemen. However, the Kenyan society is very “religious”
and coupled with the fact that over 90% of parliamentarians are men, such a law
can never be passed. With this scenario it appears that sex tourism is here to
stay whether criminalized or otherwise because the structures are in place to
ensure demand and supply to sustain the trade.
Conclusions
The solution to the sex tourism problem in Kenya is, therefore, not to criminalize
or legalize it but rather to investigate the root causes and sort out the problem
from the root. Rather than continuing to conduct futile seminars and conferences,
these victims need practical, viable, tangible and sustainable interventions. There
is need to formulate a law that would regulate sex tourism and the sex industry in
the country; this must be supported with a range of social/economic policies and
programmes.
Since poverty is the major reason why women go into tourism, women need to
be empowered economically. They can be encouraged to start income
generating activities and the younger ones can be advised and supported to go
back to school. The victims should be offered long-term rehabilitation
programmes that include care, love, medical and legal services as well as
guidance and counselling.
All stakeholders including government agencies, NGOS, the private sector, the
media and communities should be involved in these programmes. The Sex
tourism programmes should also be monitored regularly through follow-up and
after-care activities. There is also a need to educate the Kenyan society about
providing equal opportunities for both sexes. The government must address the
problem rather than deny the existence of sex tourism in the country. Women
groups in the Third world countries including Kenya should also liaise with their
counterparts in western countries to protect women from sex tourism and
trafficking.
Since, we can no longer deny the existence of sex tourism in Kenya, there is
urgent need to carry out systematic research to answer certain fundamental
questions such as: How big is the sex industry in Kenya? How many women and
how many tourists are involved? Is sex tourism in Kenya unique to the country or
are there similarities with the trade in regions like Southeast Asia? To what
extent is the African culture and beliefs keeping sex tourism in check? What is
the precise government position on sex tourism? What tangible, reliable and
sustainable programmes can be implemented to rehabilitate and re-integrate sex
workers back into the society?
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